Religion, Rituals, and Health

Chapter 4 Religion, Rituals, and Health Overview of Chapter Topics †¢ Introduction: Religion, spirituality, and ritual †¢ Religion in the U. S. †¢ Religion and health behaviors – Effect of religion on health-related behaviors – Religion and health outcomes – Religion and medical decisions †¢ Rituals in relation to health practices †¢ Case Study: Cystic fibrosis in a Hasidic Jewish patient Religion, Spirituality, and Ritual †¢ There is considerable overlap between religion and spirituality. Religion: a belief in and respect for a supernatural power or powers, which is regarded as creator and governor of the universe, and a personal or institutionalized system grounded in such a belief or worship †¢ Spirituality: the life force within each of us, and it refers to an individual’s attempt to find meaning and purpose in life Religion, Spirituality, and Ritual †¢ Religion is more associated with behaviors that can be quant ified than the more inchoate term, spirituality. †¢ Religion can be categorized by denomination, so there is more agreement about the meaning of the term, and it can be more easily quantified (i. . , place of worship) †¢ Similar overlap exists between religion and ritual. – Religion may include established rituals, but not all rituals are associated with a specific religion. – Consequently, this chapter examines the relationship between ritual and health separately from the relationship between religion and health. Religion in the U. S. †¢ In 1999, 95% of population in U. S. reported a belief in God or higher power. †¢ In a 2005 study, 57% of those queried stated that religion is very important in their lives, while some 28% stated that it is fairly important. Since 1992, studies have found consistent rates of attendance at religious places of worship. †¢ Religion and ethnicity may be loosely linked, but a person’s religious affiliation should not be assumed based on his/her ethnicity. Religion and Health Behaviors †¢ Lifestyle is single most prominent influence over health today. †¢ People with religious ties have been shown to follow healthier behavioral patterns than the nonreligious related to – Wider networks of social support than does a strictly secular life – Social networks are often key to coping with life stress so improved coping mechanisms – Proscribed behaviors (i. . , no alcohol consumption or premarital sex) Religion and Health Behaviors †¢ Dietary practices with possible effects on health – Prohibition or restriction of consumption of animal products and beverages – Fasting – Prohibition or restriction of use of stimulants and depressants because of addictive properties †¢ Some religions incorporate the use of stimulants or depressants into their ceremonies †¢ Religious practice may correlate with positive health behaviors generally , as well as with reduced rates of depression and higher rates of marital stability Religion and Health Behaviors Religion thought to correlate to positive outcomes with respect to: – – – – – – – – – – – Hypertension Mortality/longevity Depression Suicide Promiscuous sexual behavior Drug and alcohol use Delinquency General feelings of well-being Hope/purpose/meaning in life Self-esteem Educational attainment Religion and Health Outcomes †¢ Religion also can harm health – Sometimes used to justify hatred, aggression, and prejudice – Can be judgmental, alienating, exclusive – Can cause feeling of religious guilt or feeling of failure to meet religious expectations – May restrict health care services because belief that health is in God’s handsReligion and Medical Decisions †¢ Beginning of life decisions – Abortion: Opposed or strictly limited by many religio ns (i. e. , health of the mother is at risk if pregnancy continued; child would be born with a disability that will cause suffering; rape; incest) – Birth control usage: Varying methods approved or strongly opposed by certain religions; some religions permit hormonal methods but not the methods that block or destroy sperm Religion and Medical Decisions †¢ End of life decisions – Religious belief may influence decisions to accept/reject optional treatments to prolong life at the end i. . , respirators, organ transplants, feeding tubes Religion and Medical Decisions †¢ End of life decisions †¢ Organ donation: perspective is changing— some now view it an act of compassion; related to belief in resurrection †¢ Euthanasia: the act or practice of ending life of someone who is suffering from a terminal illness or incurable condition by lethal injection or suspension of medical treatment – Opposed when viewed as murder or suicide or that it wi ll damage karma (states that one must show respect for preservation of life) – Some see as an act of compassion and concern for dignityReligion and Medical Decisions †¢ End of life decisions †¢ Use of advance directives for end of life care †¢ Advanced directives are legal documents that enable a person to convey his or her decisions about care ahead of time †¢ Include information about use of life-sustaining equipment, artificial hydration and nutrition (tube feeding), resuscitation, organ donation, comfort care †¢ Concerns related to appointing one person as the decision maker in collectivists cultures, person undergoing needless suffering, and if you discuss it, it will happenRitual in Relation to Health Practices †¢ Ritual: a set of actions that usually are very structured and have symbolic meaning or value †¢ May be performed on certain occasions, at regular intervals, or at discretion of individuals or communities; held in private or p ublic †¢ Tied to numerous activities and events i. e. , births, deaths, holidays, club meetings, etc. †¢ Many rituals in health care settings i. . , being on time for appointments, how people are addressed, where patient’s sit Ritual in Relation to Health Practices †¢ Objects as rituals (i. e. , amulets, bracelets, statues, crosses) †¢ Importance of shrines in ritual activities (many are for health and healing) †¢ Rituals involving animal sacrifice (done to build and maintain personal relationship with a spirit) †¢ Birth rituals (i. e. food restrictions, silent birth, how placenta is discarded) †¢ Death rituals (how and when the body is disposed of, prayer, dress, use of flowers) Summary †¢ Religion and spirituality play a major role in people’s lives and in their health decisions and behaviors. †¢ It has been shown to improve health, but also can contribute to health problems †¢ Impacts medical decisions †¢ Many r ituals are related to health and some are tied to specific religions .

Cultural Identity Interview and Analysis

An interview with a member of the Mexican American community was conducted on December 1st, 2007. This research will provide a summary of that interview; particularly, it will include a description of the rules, norms, traditions, and values of Mexican American culture. The research will also discuss: a) how the assumptions regarding cultural norms affect the interviewee’s behavior in his daily life; b) any disadvantages related to his culture being outside â€Å"the norm† and how he reacts to that; c) any advantages related to being assimilated to the â€Å"normative† culture and how he reacts; d) his sources of strength or support; e) an analysis of the four dimension theory and how it relates to the interviewee’s life. Finally, the research will provide some insight on how one can effectively communicate with people of other cultures. In fact, communication with various members that belong to other ethnic groups (i.e. Arab Americans, Hispanic Americans, African Americans, etc) may be difficult some at times because of the cultural difference that exists between the groups. Jose Luis Aguilar was born in Tijuana, Mexico on January 7th, 1972. Mexican is the ethnic group he belongs. He lived in Mexico for 29 years. In 2001, he immigrated in Los Angeles, California. Job opportunities, presence of family members, and the presence of a massive Mexican community were the factors that brought him to immigrate into the United States. Mexican Americans are the largest Hispanic or Latino ethnic group in the United States. According to the 2000 Census, approximately 20 million Hispanic or Latinos of the 35 million in the United States are Mexican Americans (U.S. Census, 2000). Mr. Aguilar’s native language is Spanish. However, during the past years spent in California, he was able to learn basic English, although it remains a second language as the majority of the Mexican American who live in the United States. Richard Schaefer stated â€Å"as of 2002, about 23 percent of Mexican Americans are English dominant, 26 percent are bilingual, and 51 percent are Spanish dominant† (Schaefer, 2006, p. 241). Mr. Aguilar’s religion is Catholic. Indeed, Mexican Americans represent â€Å"the largest number of Catholic immigrants to the United States comes from Mexico; Mexico also sends the largest number of Protestant immigrants to the United States† (Murray, 2006). Mr. Aguilar is married. He has a 1 year-old son. Aguilar’s family has a patriarchal organization as the same as other many Mexican American families have. According to Kathleen Niska, Mexican Americans Families â€Å"continuity was characterized by mothers doing tasks inside the house, fathers doing tasks outside the house, and both parents performing toddler and early childhood tasks† (Niska, 2001). One of the Mexican traditions that Mr. Aguilar mentioned during the interview was â€Å"quinceanera†. This ritual is celebrated in church when women reach the age of 15 to thank God that they arrived to this stage of their lives. Similar to a wedding day celebration, the celebration of a girl's fifteenth birthday is a major event in most Hispanic girls’ lives as it means that she begins her journey to adulthood (Mattel, 2001). They are ready to get married. The ritual of quinceanera is viewed not only as a gesture to strengthen faith and family but also as a means to prevent teen pregnancies. A quinceanera also allows for sending a message of sexual responsibility (NC Times, 2008). Mr. Aguilar is an independent contractor mainly for real estate management companies. He provides general maintenance services at $10 an hour. So far, he had limited choices regarding the jobs (e.g. janitorial, landscaping, and maintenance) he could do since he moved into United States. Lack of education and his pending status with INS (he has not received his green card yet, work permit only) were the obstacles that did not allow him to obtain better paid jobs. According to David Spener, â€Å"Mexican immigrant workers play an important economic role inside the United States as well. They constitute a significant portion (8 percent) of the total U.S. manufacturing work force† (Spener, 2000). Mexican Americans are usually have been seen by American companies as â€Å"cheap labor†. Mr. Aguilar shared that members of his culture had been affected by any form of racism, prejudice or discrimination. In particular, he pointed out the bilingualism issue and the tension that the proposition 227 created among his community. Proposition 227 went into effect in 1998 and required that all public school instruction had to be in English. A) How do assumptions about cultural â€Å"norms† impact your interviewee’s behavior on a day-to-day basis? Mr. Aguilar pointed out how one particular assumption regarding Mexican Americans culture affects his life on a day-to-day basis. He mentioned that one of his cousins was a gang member; he was killed months ago. A popular assumption is that Mexican American gang membership is generational which means the membership from a father to a son or from a family member to another one. Therefore, based on this assumption, people believe that he is a gang member. So, Mr. Aguilar’s behavior is direct to prevent anything that may mislead people in this sense, e.g. wearing red or blue, or specific clothing, or having tattoos. B) Does your interviewee recognize any challenges or disadvantages related to her/his culture being outside the â€Å"norm†? How does he/she respond to those challenges? Similar to several other fellow Mexican Americans, Mr. Aguilar is able to communicate in his native language without learning English properly. In fact, Spanish language is commonly spoken in the city of Los Angeles. Almost every place (grocery stores, restaurants, public offices, and so forth) has signs and directions in Spanish language. This massive promotion of Mr. Aguilar’s native language in the United States encouraged by Mass Media represents a disadvantage. Radio and television have also been factors that allowed Mexican Americans, as Mr. Aguilar, to maintain their original cultural values. In fact, in 2004, there were over 678 Spanish language radio stations compared to 1982, when there were 12 Spanish language television stations in the United States. This number more than doubled within 10 years. Several artists (e.g. Jennifer Lopez or Shakira) helped to promote their cultures by singing in their traditional languages (Jandt, 2007). Mr. Aguilar has responded to this challenge by enrolling himself in an adult school in order to improve his English. However, as of today, he is still struggling to write, read and speak English fluently. C) Does your interviewee recognize any privileges or advantages associated with assimilating to the â€Å"normative† culture? How does he/she react to that recognition? Mr. Aguilar recognized that being assimilated to the â€Å"normative† culture has some advantages. In particular, he stated that a positive aspect is that immigrants learn the language of the â€Å"normative† culture; they are able to avoid any form of isolation and segregation. Furthermore, these immigrants likely will not face any prejudice from the dominant society as he experienced during his stay in the United States. During the interview Mr. Aguilar recalled a few family acquaintances with 3rd generation sons and daughters who had an adaptation in the American culture different compared to their parents. In fact, they were able to go to school, learn the language, get a college education, and obtain a good job. They became a part of the American culture. In fact, they celebrate the 4th of July and the Thanksgiving, which are truly American holidays. They also had to learn about professional sports other than Mexican soccer. He now is also watching baseball, basketball, and American football games. D) What does that person cite as being sources of strength or support? Mr. Aguilar cited church and family as his sources of strength or support. As many others fellow Mexicans Americans, Mr. Aguilar gives exceptional importance to religion and family on a day-to-day basis; he is very active in his community especially with humanitarian initiative promoted by his catholic church. Mr. Aguilar is very family orientated. He tries to spend as much time as possible with his family; it may be common to see him doing business with his families around. E) An analysis of the four dimension theory and how it relates to the interviewee’s life A theory from the course that was well related to Mr. Aguilar’s interview is the â€Å"four dimensions of culture† by Geert Hofstede. Particularly, Aguilar’s interview confirmed that in the Mexican culture masculinity is predominant, mostly due its history. Mexican families were mainly patriarchal therefore men were in charge of the family; they were working to provide money and food while women were at home taking care of the children. Mexican culture is based more on collectivism due mainly to the fact that more people with financial difficul ties seek to one another for help or gather together (e.g. two or three families living in the same apartment). Power distance is embodied in the Mexican culture. Mexico is a developing country with significant financial problems. The difference between people (e.g. poor and rich people) is well marked. Finally, the fourth dimension, uncertainty avoidance, is correlated to religion and history of the cultures (Jandt, 2007). Roman Catholic Christian cultures and cultures with Romance languages (e.g. Mexico) tend to score high. In conclusion, communication with various members that belong to other ethnic groups may be difficult at times because of the cultural difference that exists between the groups. However, inclusive language can be an effective way to communicate with such members. Mr. Aguilar and the interviewer are from different culture backgrounds. There were times during the interview where inclusive language was used to avoid miscommunication. Choosing the right words when communicating with members who have different backgrounds may help to prevent miscommunication that may end up stereotyping them on the basis of race, gender, disability, religion, or other factors. Furthermore, conducting research and gathering information on members with different backgrounds may help not only to overcome language issues but also can assist people in becoming more culturally sensitive.References http://nsq.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/14/4/322 http://www.nctimes.com/articles/2008/01/05/faith/17_56_271_3_08.txt

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â€Å"The Male Bashing Stereotype† by Kimberly Graham, unveils the secret of creativity, which is by her own admission a process of â€Å"uneducation,† rather than one of education. The premise here is to discard the rules we’ve learned about creative writing, and formulate new ones that actually work for us. Goldberg teaches workshops where current writers go not to learn the craft, but to actually tap into the creative process using a more â€Å"hands on† approach. Goldberg’s approach offers challenging concepts and positive solutions. Natalie Goldberg is a firm believer in the writing exercise, which is an excellent way to keep in good form. The author, a practicing Zen Buddhist, manages to address most of the problems that sabotage the process itself. According to Goldberg, it is the way we approach and perceive the craft itself that ultimately prevents writers from producing the work. She opens with a chapter labeled, â€Å"First Thoughts,† which advocates letting go of all of one’s ego and inhibition. â€Å"We must trust in our own process and voice,† she insists. This first statement rings absolutely true. In writer’s groups writers come and go frequently. The ones that ultimately persevere in the craft are the ones that don’t have thin skins. Goldberg quotes a cherished Zen master as having said, â€Å"We must continue to open in the face of great opposition† (Rinpoche12). For this reason, the writer has to be able to separate themselves from his or her work. The work may in fact be an extension or reflection of the writer’s personal experience, but this is where the association ends. Unless the work is viewed through this lens, critique will always seem like a personal attack, instead of an aspect for improvement. Goldberg prefers first thoughts because she says, â€Å"First thoughts are unencumbered by ego† (8).

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Race and Representation - Essay Example At the same time the celebration has its own pit falls as it might retrogress into violence and killing at the slightest trigger. "This is a delicate situation, and â€Å"race† remains fissile material." (Gilroy, 2004, p. 14). There have been many studies centered on most races of the world. But the images of whiteness have not been placed under the microscope as much as other images of race especially that of blackness. The purpose of this study is to make a cursory glance of the images of whiteness that evolved over the years. Representation and study of racial images or stereotypes are having many sensitive issues. The visual representation of racial stereotypes might force people to re-live and freshen old memories, which might jeopardize inter-racial relation. However, academic pursuits cannot be neglected for the sensitivity of a few. In fact the study might throw light on the subliminal foundations for the formation of stereotypes and provide us the escape routes for the mounting racial and ethnic tensions that has resulted in the loss of many human lives. The idea of race itself is questionable, as Appiah has put it: There is nothing in the world that can do all we ask race to do for us†¦. Talk of race is particularly distressing for those of us who take culture seriously. For, when race works-in places where â€Å"gross differences† of morphology are correlated with â€Å"subtle differences† of temperament, belief, and intention-it works as an attempt at metonym for culture, and it does so only at the price of biologizing what is culture, ideology. (Appiah 1992:45) The central thesis of this paper is the essential nature of the image of whiteness as a historical construct developed over many years similar to its foil blackness. This study focuses on the works of Richard Dyer. Whiteness is essentially a body of knowledge, ideologies, behavioral norms, and many practices constructed over the history

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'The analytical study of communication and media is central to understanding the ways we live now'. Discuss - Essay Example Hence, the essence is communication and its expression is through different media including language. The scope of variety in media is reflected in the statement, â€Å"In asking what computers can do, we are drawn into asking what people do with them, and in the end into addressing the fundamental question of what it means to be human† (Winograd and Flores 1986, p.7). Here, the medium referred to is computers. Keeping in view this diversity in media forms and the different ways of communication that is made through them, this essay is an attempt to understand, how and why communication and media is central to understanding the ways we live now. Now we have two types of media; one is the media that helps communication among two individuals, or within a small group which is called local media and the second is mass media or global media (Machin and Leeuwen, 2007, p.7-10). While media like a low range microphone or a telephone are considered as included in the first category, me dia like, newspapers, magazines, film, radio etc. are considered as mass media because they can at a time reach out to ‘n’ number of people (Machin and Leeuwen, 2007, p.7-10). ... example, Hall (19 June 1992, p.8) has drawn attention to the creation of new ‘cultures of hybridity†, brought about by the interaction of local media with the global (mass) media. Here, the reference is to a new kind of culture that is emerging out of the interactions with local and global media. It has to be remembered that before mass media emerged, â€Å"public life was linked to a common locale; an event became public when a plurality of people physically congregated to hear and see the communication of a message, whether a band of traveling minstrels or an execution in the town square† (Craig, 2004, p.6). In this way, media created a new kind of public life and also helped us to understand it as well. In the context of a medium like television, when viewed in a house hold, it has been observed that, â€Å"the spatial separation of producer from consumer, combined with the temporal simultaneity and continuity of transmission and reception, have given rise to a n ‘aesthetic’ and a communicative style† (Moores, 2000, p.13). It is through this complex prism of space and time, that we now view life. Another interesting aspect has been that the media has made it possible for us to see ourselves very closely and from new different angles. This is why we say that now our life is â€Å"mediated† (Craig, 2004, p.4). Especially, media and the communication through them have been viewed as â€Å"the sites where the meanings of public life are generated, debated and evaluated† (Craig, 2004, p.4). Media and communication have been crucial in developing our outlook of a global society, in expanding our vision of the world, bringing news from all around the world to us within no time, media and communication have made us aware what we are, by helping our knowledge to

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Teachers Roles in Autonomous Learning Shanghais Yan School of foreign languages, Lanzhou University of technology, Lanzhou, China - Essay Example Learner autonomy is not based on the above misconceptions. Therefore, the actual definition can be captured through the ability of the learner to be responsible as well as independent. The learner is an active participant and is very conscious of what they learn, the way they does learn as well as the time they learn. This form of learning has been degfined by various scholars, including Holec who pointed out that the ability to have control over the learning process by the learner entails autonomy. Yan (2012) continues to argue about the benefits of learner autonomy. He points out that the learner has the capacity to develop enthusiasm and initiative in what they are learning. In addition, the learner becomes very independent while developing creativity and innovativeness. Since learner autonomy is beneficial, the teacher must play a role its promotion, argues the author. He proposes that being the knowledge giver that dominates the class throughout the class time, the teacher is the most well placed individual to inculcate learner autonomy. He concludes that the teacher is the facilitator, organizer and the manager to the learner. In addition, he is the counsellor to the

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Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 2

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Understanding when a student requires further help beyond your remit is a boundary which should be effectively utilized. Summarise key aspects of relevant current legislative requirements and codes of practice within a specific context: You need to be aware of key aspects of current legislation and codes of practice relevant to your subject and organization â€Å"(Ann gravells, 2008, p19) As an IT teacher in further education sector I have to be aware about â€Å"the Equal Opportunity Act (2006), The Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) and Disability Right Commission (DRC). They aim to eliminate discrimination, reduce inequality, protect human rights and to build good relations , ensuring that everyone has a fair chance to participate in the society. Apart from that, I have to be aware about Disability Discrimination Act (2005), Sex Discrimination Act (1975), Race Relation Act (1976), Data Protection Act(1998). As most of my students need a VISA from UKBA, I have to be aware about the UKBA rules and regulations as well. To work as a teacher in UK, I have to follow the code of conduct from LLUK. Review the points of referral available to meets the potential needs of learner: For students to effectively participate in learning any barriers or boundaries must be initially identified and then continuously monitored throughout the course. This promotes a sense of inclusion, equality and diversity at an individual level, which translates to a more beneficial group learning experience during the course. Financial pressures, reluctance to train, learning difficulties, travel issues, access to resources and cultural or peer pressure can all contribute to learners boundaries; however access to the course should be open to all regardless of race, religion, age, disability, gender or special needs. Collecting this data also helps identify areas that may require referral to scribes, counseling, creche facilities, health advice or a basic skills tutor in order to overcome obstacles. Discuss issues of equality and diversity, and ways to promote inclusion All learners are entitled to equal opportunities, and any communication with students should reflect this. Reece and Walker, (2000 p379) Promoting inclusion by identifying variation in needs ensures that learners have equality throughout their learning experience. Data collection through assessment etc is useful when analyzed, acted upon and continuously monitored to ensure consistency in equality. Promoting equality through more effective allocation and targeting of differing resources according to individual need is essential to the learning experience. Implementing different strategies throughout the holistic health and wellbeing course helps learners explore, question and develop an understanding of issues regarding diversity. Recognizing, differences and celebrating them through varying teaching methods responds to pupils’ diverse learning needs and supports learning activities which challenge prejudice and negative attitudes. Promoting diversity encourages widening participation and gives pupils the opportunity to share their own understanding while learning from their peers experiences. Justify the need for record keeping Teachers have to keep the records all the time which includes records of student’s information, improvement, weakness, learning difficulties, lectures etc. I always keep the record to comply with the legislation and code of conduct and practice as well. Without having any records about students, it is difficult to provide the equal opportunity of learning for the students. Understand appropriate teaching and learning in approaches in the specialist area. Identity, adapt and use relevant approaches to teaching and learning in relation to the specialist area When I teach I try to cater for all learning styles by using various teaching methods and strategies. These included PowerPoint slides, talking, QA, discussions, practical labs, writing and drawing on worksheets and using a whiteboard to collect and analyze information. Auditory learners’ may benefit from discussion, listening to presentations and questions and answers. Visual learners may benefit from whiteboard drawings, on-screen computer demonstrations, and handouts. Tactile/Kinaesthetic learners benefit more from the practical labs, building networks and producing their wn work. There are unique differences in the way people learn and we must recognise this and not regard individuals as one group or body of students. (Reece Walker, 2002, p178) When students are reading the online material I try to walk around the class and aid any students who need it, I also try to make the teaching session as differential as possible with the morning covering presentations, discussions , Q A and reading the online material and the afternoon covering mainly practical activities. [pic] The Learning Cycle Evaluate a range of ways to embed elements of functional skills in the specialist area I always embed numeracy, literacy and IT skills in my entire lesson. As I teach IT most of my session has practical session which depends on IT skill only. I always use power point presentation for my lecture as it is a effective way of learning. At the same time I do use white board and pens as well. I try to create some computer games to teach learners. By playing these games learners learner something while they enjoy the game. I use different case study and simulation software to give the understanding to the learners about the real world scenario and the industry standards. Evaluate the teaching and learning approaches for a specific session. Of leadership for an organization, industry or sector I always try to split the teaching sessions fifty fifty, in the morning we do the presentations, questions and answers and in the afternoon we do practical assignments and lab session. When participating in the lab session the students usually work in pairs. When teaching in the practical lab session, I also ensure that I am available for guidance and advice; I also give each student some personal time. When I could manage the time to go to every individual learner to find out the individual needs, I can help them most. Session like this can provide the maximum inclusive learning for the student if the number of learners is reasonable for me to give the personal support to everyone. I like these kind of session most as it can help the learners to learn something very easily. Demonstrate session planning skills Plan a teaching and learning session which meets the needs of individual learners I have found that, planning a session is the most important part for inclusive learning. I always spend reasonable time to plan my lesson properly. I try to make sure, all of my lesson will be the combination of literacy, numeracy and IT skills which will deliver most to a learner. In my lesson plan I describe what are the aims and objective of my lesson and how it will be meet. My lesson plan includes a session, which describes the situation after finishing the lesson. I always make sure there is enough plan to engage the learners with learning process which could be the assessing criteria for their learning as well. I always start my lesson with the review of the last class and I finish the lesson after having a quick review of present lesson. Planning for the resources, what I do use in my lesson, comes under my session planning. Without having enough resources I cannot deliver an inclusive learning session. The common resources I do use are the Power Point presentation, white board, pen and duster, different application software, computer, network etc. I normally do a presentation for the first twenty minutes of my teaching session, these sessions are planned so that the students do not have to use the computer and there is no interaction between computer and presentation, the reason for lack of interaction is that it can be very distracting for the students when they have to look from one to the other. After twenty minute presentation I always engage the students in conversation and ask them what they think of the chapter that they are studying and situations that it might apply to.

Organisations Are Not All The Same

Organisations Are Not All The Same Majority of organizations have a management structure that determines the relationships between the members and different activities happening within the organisation, the responsibilities ,the assigned roles and finally the authority to carry out different tasks. Organizations are open systems, their surroundings or environments affect them and they in turn affect their environment. What do organisations do? The ultimate goal of an organization is the ability working together. The strength of an organization arises from its capacity for coordination of systems, people, and activities. Coordination and integration is very essential to every single organisation, because this not only helps the organisation grow, but also makes it stronger as a unit. So therefore integration and coordination are the most advanced tools of an organisation. What are they composed of? Organisations are composed of major subsystems, such as teams, groups, departments and programmes etc. departments, programs, divisions, teams, etc. Each of these subsystems has a way of doing things to, along with other subsystems. How are organisations; organised? Organisations are made up of different sub structures. In any organization employees duties are typically defined by who they report to, what they do, and for the managers, who reports to them. As the organization grows bigger these roles are assigned to positions within the organization rather than to specific individuals. The best an organization is organized depends on many factors including the work it does; its size in terms of labor, capital, revenue, and the location of its facilities; and the types of the businesses the organization is involved in. Are they all the same; or are there differences? Organisations are not all the same If they are different; in what way do they differ? Organisations differ through the structures a particular organisation chooses to run its firm on. What are the reasons for the differences? Seminar Question Two Why is understanding the context within which an organisation operates important? (Remember you should be using the literature to develop and support your answers) The organizational context refers to the scope of an entity, such as an entire organisation, a sub-organisation within the overall organisation, a work unit, a parent organization a work role etc. There are three perspectives to which an organisation operates; they are the strategic, tactical and operational. The strategic focuses on long term needs within the organisation, the tactical focuses on long term needs within the organisational context, and the operational perspectives is based on users task within the organisation. Seminar Question three What benefit would strategic decision-makers gain from utilising a definitive framework and following a specified strategy development and deployment process? Strategic management evaluates the major initiatives taken by a companys top management on behalf of owners, involving resources and performance in external environments. It specifies the organizations vision, mission, and goals. It helps shapes up policies and plans, often in terms of certain target to be meet or projects and programs, which are designed to achieve these goals. According to recent studies carried out by leading management theorists strategy needs to start with stake holders expectations when dealing with any major problem. Strategic management provides guidance and an overall direction to the firm. According to Arieu (2007), there is strategic consistency when the actions of an organization are consistent with the expectations of management, and these in turn are with the market and the context. Seminar Question Four Carry out a PESTLE analysis of a nationally operating retailing organisation. Discuss the results of your analysis and any conclusions you can make concerning the organisations mid to long term future. What trends might be useful to monitor as a performance indicator for strategic actions the organisation might take? Use the PESTLE grids we looked at this week and submit copies with your answer PESTLE ANALYSIS FOR COCA-COLA Coca-Cola, the largest manufacturer, distributor and marketer of beverage drinks in the world as of today. Coca-Cola is recognized as the worlds most valuable brand in the beverage industry. They have the worlds largest beverage distribution system, plus boasting total consumers in more than 200 countries Political Analysis Government regulations and rules make Coca-Cola follow and open strict laws and regulations. Government have potential fines and penalties set aside if they do not meet this rules. Different changes in laws and regulations, changes in non-alcoholic environment Seminar Question Five Conduct a review of the business literature, and then carry out a Five Force analysis of the Coca-Cola organisation. Describe and discuss the results of your analysis The competitive structure of coca cola organisation and can be analysed using Porters five forces. This model attempts to analyse the coca cola industry by considering five forces within its market. The extent to which barriers to entry exist. The more difficult it becomes for other firms to enter the market, therefore making it more likely for existing firms to make more profits. Coca cola as an existing brand would have a high level of loyalty form its customers and as an already existing it may react aggressively to any new entrant into its type of market. Thirdly the stronger the power of buyers in an industry the more likely it is that they will be able to force down prices and reduce the profits of firms that provide the product. There would also be heavy competition coca cola faces regularly from its different rivals such as Pepsi, and since there is a high degree of rivalry that exist between these two fierce competitors, it would be relatively hard for coca cola to generate high profits. In addition, supplier power plays a big role in Coca-Cola operating strategy because, if the supplier power is strong, then it would be difficult for Coca-Cola to make high profits if the suppliers determine the terms and conditions on which the business is run. Finally Coca-Cola is likely to generate higher returns if the industry Is difficult to enter, there are limited rivalry, the buyers are relatively weak, Suppliers are also relatively weak, and there are few substitutes. On the other hand from my review, they would make low returns, if the suppliers are strong, there are numerous substitutes available, there is a high degree of rivalry between the firms, buyers are strong, and the industry is easy to enter. Seminar Question Six In an organisation change programme after PESTLE and 5 force analysis have been completed the 7S Model specifies seven factors that are classified into soft and hard elements. Soft elements are skills style and shared values, while the hard elements on the other hand are easily identified and influenced by management. The hard elements are systems, structure and strategy. Seminar Question Seven When considering the Boston Matrix explains what causes products and services to be cash users, cash neutral or cash generators. Explain why an organisation might decide to keep providing a product or service long after it has reached the decline and low return stage of the life cycle. Cash cows have high customer loyalty and own a high percentage of the market share .This is because customers have a good understanding of the product and most times are loyal, and less marketing support is needed to promote the particular good or service. These high sales results in economies of scale so therefore the average unit costs are relatively low. Profit margins, on the other hand, are likely to be on the high side because the product is a major cash generator. Seminar Question Eight What would the value chain of a university look like? Produce a value chain model and a short description. Make some suggestions of how to improve the cost effectiveness of some of the value chain elements. Seminar Question Nine Produce a table that records the features of the competitive positioning strategies of: Ryan Air, BMW and Rolls Royce. Where do each of these organisations fit in the Porter Generic Strategy Model? Describe how each organisation sustains their competitive advantage Seminar Question Ten The key stakeholders for the University of Huddersfield are: The students /parents alumni: The students want a good valued degree leading to further study or graduate employment. A good caring safe student experience with a good quality accommodation and top class facilities is also needed. Furthermore high standards of teaching and academic support 3. Employees businesses 4. School colleges 5. Applied research funders

Challenges to Female Entrepreneurs | Research

Challenges to Female Entrepreneurs | Research INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Entrepreneurship as a research field attracts the interest of many researchers because it is a tool of development for many economies in the world (Creamer, 2006), Likewise views on feminism today are vast as they are varied and contentious, (Ikoku, 2002), which explains the increasing attention of Female Entrepreneurship in the recent years (Jamali,2009). Not only does female entrepreneurship contribute to economic growth and employment creation, but it is increasingly recognized to also enhance the diversity of entrepreneurship in any economic system (Verheul et al., 2006) and to provide avenues for female expression and potential fulfillment (Jamali,2009; Eddleston and Powell, 2008). The investigation of the factors that leads particular people to become entrepreneurs instead of others has been a question of many researches. So, many researchers have tried to understand the reasons leading those people to entrepreneurship. Toward that direction, theories and models (Leahey, 2006) were developed, and focused on the intentions that make people undertake entrepreneurship action, because the intentions are the best predictor factor for the future behavior of a person, such as the foundation of an enterprise (Krueger, 2005). So it is supported, that by formulating fundamental theories for the entrepreneurial intentions, we can explain a basic peace of the field of entrepreneurship as it affects genders. Institutional theory has been viewed as a fruitful theoretical lens in the context of female entrepreneurship research (Baugh et al., 2006). Drawing on institutional theory, Scott (1995) enumerates salient regulative, normative and cognitive pillars of institutions, which promote stability and predictability in social behavior, through compliance with codified laws. Of course there are some factors that contribute to the prediction of the entrepreneurial intentions such as the attitude and the degree of desirability toward that behavior and the level of the feasibility (Krueger, 2005). Davidson (2005) mentioned other factors defining the intentions of entrepreneurship such as propensity to action, personal convictions and other demographic variables such as gender, age, educational level and economic environment. 1.2 Women in Business The 20th century has been a period of rapid change for many women, but life for women in some parts of the world still remains harsh. However, women are getting a vital role in the global market as entrepreneurs, they play a large and growing role in the US, Canada and UK. Hisrick Ozturk,(1999) attributed their success to access to greater support from women mentors and role models and easier access to formal training in the principles of business planning and organization. Whereas, women in developing countries face obstacles such as lack of access to education and training, access to finance as well as discrimination and lack of respect or not being taken seriously (Woldie adersua,2004;Ezeaku Ozigbo, 2009). Globally, it is estimated that women account for 25-33 percent of all businesses (National Foundation of Women Business Owners, 1998). Whilst in the UK and the USA, they account for 26 and 33 percent of business start-ups respectively, surprisingly, in the Sub- Saharan Africa it is 80 percent (Kitching and Woldie, 2004).Despite the high contribution in Africa, their needs seem to be overlooked and largely hidden within the informal sector compared to their male counterparts (Mordi et al.,2009). The subject of womens career development has become increasingly important as the percentage of the Nigerian labour force that is female has increased from 11.2% two decades ago to 40.4% today (Federal office of statistics) and the proportion is expected to increase further (Nakhaie, 2007). Although there have been some women in managerial positions during the last decade, the number has been painfully few in the light of the fact that over forty percent of the work force are women. Nigerian Economy Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa, and accounts for half of West Africas population, and over 25 percent of Sub- Sahara Africa (SSA) (Nkamnebe, 2008). It is populated with over 150 million inhabitants, of which, over half of the population 15-64 years is young and active (C. I. A, 2010), still the country is characterized with poverty and is on the increase. For instance, poverty increased from 35 million people in 1985, to 39 million people in 1992; 67 people in 1996; and 74 million people in 1999. In addition, Human Development Programme indicates that 70.8 percent and 92.4 percent of Nigerian population live below US$1 (N117) and US$2 (N234) daily respectively (UNDP,2007). This claim supports the ranking of Nigeria among less developed nations of the world (UNDP, 2007). The Nigerian labour market has been characterized by high rate of unemployment, low wage and poor working conditions. This unwholesome situation evolved after the oil boom of the 1970s and remained so till date (Nnanna, Alade and Odoko, 2003). Prior to the oil boom, the Nigerian economy was largely agrarian and about 70% of the working population was engaged in agricultural activities in the rural areas. Wage rates were also comparable to international standards and the average Nigerian worker could afford decent living. In the 1960s, the emphasis of employment policies was that of shifting labour from the agricultural sector to the manufacturing sector. This appeared to be the natural path of economic growth and development, following the experienced of the developed countries (Ajakaiye, 2001). However, the Nigerian peculiarities of land tenure system, tenancy and the very rudimentary processes of farming made it extremely difficult to deploy substantially advance technology in the sector. Moreover, at that time economic policies concentrated more on the development of the manufacturing sector, under the much touted import-substitution strategy. Rather, labour moved from the agricultural sector to the services sector, with little productivity gains. Both agriculture and manufacturing lost out. The issue of sustainable development in the Third World like Nigeria has been a growing concern to both the government and the private sector. The government had invested so much money on this platform over the years but has not yielded any meaningful result. It has been realized in the recent years that there are limits to which the government alone can promote development especially with Nigerian peculiar developmental challenges due to maladministration, corruption, unstable macroeconomic regime and unpredictable fiscal policies by successive administrations (Fasua, 2006). Thus, both the public and the private sectors of the economy need to be involved in the industrial development process of the country. It is on this basis that government begins to engage in privatization policy with the view of allowing the private sector to participate in the economic development of the nation (Olu, 2009). The weak economy itself choked out several business enterprises and curtailed employment opportunities. Staff retrenchment became pervasive, starting first in the private sector and later the public sector. The unemployment was more problematic in the urban areas, as shown in the following chart (CBN, 2003). Nwoye (2007) further suggested that the best way to stimulate the economic system is by mobilizing energy, expertise and resource in Small and Medium Enterprises which will increase productivity, and ultimately improve the social life and economic welfare. The author was also concerned about the attainment of economic growth when half the population being female gender is marginalized in policy planning and economic resource management matters. Moreover, with women comprising of 52 percent of Africas estimated 805 million population, womens empowerment is of the essence for Africa sustainable growth. This claim is applicable to Nigeria which is the most populous country in Africa. 1.3 Research Gap Research on female business owners is extensive in the industrialised economies, especially the United States and Canada (Lerner, Brush and Hisrich, 1997), which has helped the development and needs of the female entrepreneurs. Most of the research reflects the characteristics, experiences and challenges of female entrepreneurs in the western world (Kitching and Woldie, 2004; Carter, 2000), However, a limited number of studies have been undertaken to investigate these issues in the developing countries (Mordi et al., 2010). Despite the extent of female entrepreneurs in involvement in new business formation, the economic impact of women led businesses has been down-played (Carter et al.,2002): Female entrepreneurship is an under-researched area with tremendous economic potential and one that requires special attention (Henry, 2002) Thus, there has been a growing call by scholars for studies in non- Western context to deepen our knowledge of the socially constructed nature of female entrepreneurs. In response to this research gap, the author chooses Nigeria as the scope of analysis. Aims and Objective of the Research The aim of the study is to take a deeper look at the problems faced by female entrepreneurs in Nigeria focusing on gender effects and other factors in the environment. The following objectives are formulated to guide the investigation: To identify factors in the business environment that affects the development and survival of female entrepreneurs in Nigeria. To ascertain if the issue of female gender marginalization in Nigeria affects entrepreneurial ability of women. To determine whether family roles have any effect on female entrepreneur performance in Nigeria. To determine if there is any relationship between gender and entrepreneurial skill in Nigeria. To ascertain whether culture and beliefs affect the performance of female entrepreneurs in Nigeria The dissertation deals with the problem of female entrepreneurs in Nigeria. The unit of analysis is the gender. The focus is on individual and organizational shortcomings of nascent and young entrepreneurs and their ventures and employs a theoretical framework that allows for addressing these managerial problems by adopting an evolutionary perspective. Research Questions The following research questions are formulated to guide the investigation: Are there factors in the business environment that affects the development and survival of female entrepreneurs in Nigeria? Does the issue of female gender marginalization in Nigeria affects entrepreneurial ability of women? Do family roles have effect on female entrepreneur performance in Nigeria? Is there any relationship between gender inequality and entrepreneurial skill in Nigeria? Do culture and beliefs affect the performance of female entrepreneurs in Nigeria? Research Hypotheses For the purpose of this study, it is important to test the following hypotheses: Hypothesis I Ho: The issue of female gender marginalization in Nigeria has no effects on entrepreneurial ability of women. Hi: The issue of female gender marginalization in Nigeria has effects on entrepreneurial ability of women. Hypothesis II Ho: There is no relationship between the family roles and female entrepreneurs performance in Nigeria. Hi: There is relationship between the family roles and female entrepreneurs performance in Nigeria. Hypothesis III Ho: Gender inequality is not significant to female entrepreneurial ability in Nigeria Hi: Gender inequality is significant to female entrepreneurial ability in Nigeria Significance of the Study This is significant to many people in many areas. In this light, the study is relevant because it seeks to provide entrepreneurial guideline and gender development procedure that would lead to effective attainment of national objectives in terms of economic growth and reduction of unemployment in Nigeria. To the female gender the study would serve as eye opener in terms of discovering their entrepreneurial potentials despite the influence of culture and beliefs. The conclusions can be used both in the evaluation of the current system concerning entrepreneurship as well as in the formation of new strategies in the entrepreneurship in tertiary education. It would provide students in higher-institutions with sound knowledge and give them avenue to the understanding the need for venturing into entrepreneurial activities, how, why and when entrepreneurial skills acquired tertiary institutions should be implemented. Finally, the study would serve as a veritable source of information for individuals, youths irrespective of gender and the government, on how to harvest the rich benefit of entrepreneurship in the national building and economic development. 1.7 Scope of the Study In view of the fact that the study of problems faced by female entrepreneurs involves all and sundry and cannot be exhausted in this research. It therefore becomes necessary to define the scope of the study. The scope of this study is female entrepreneurs and graduates on National Youth Corps Service (NYSC) in Lagos area of Nigeria, 2010. Therefore, this research is an empirical examination of entrepreneurship problems in Nigeria and entrepreneurial skills among graduates on NYSC; analysis by gender; it will go beyond theoretical approach to evaluate entrepreneurs problems and gender effect on entrepreneurship to generate further insight. 1.8 Structure of the Dissertation This study is divided into five parts. Chapter one is the introductory which highlights the statement of the identified problems, objectives, research questions and significance of the study, etc. Chapter two contains a detailed review of literature on key concepts of entrepreneurship, gender influence on entrepreneur performance and problems faced by female entrepreneurs in Nigeria. Chapter three discusses the research design, data collection methods, sample size determination, questionnaire design and administration, etc. In chapter four, the presentation and analysis of data and the testing of hypotheses are carried out. The results and interpretation are presented. Chapter five is the concluding part of the study, where reasons are given for the results obtained from the research. Conclusions, recommendations, and suggestions are made for improvement based on the research findings. 1.9 Definition of Terms Entrepreneur: Is the innovating individual, who initiates and nurtures to growth a new and an on going business organisation, where none existed before. Entrepreneurial Skill: The potential and ability of an individual to initiate and nurtures a new business to growth, expertly. Development: Is defined as gradual advancement through progressive stages of growth from within Capital Venture: Is a form of long term investment for start-up companies and growing businesses that have the potential to develop into significant economic contributors. Gender: Nature of human being that depict sex which is made of male and female. Graduates: Young Schools leavers especially those from higher institution of learner (i.e. universities, polytechnic and colleges, etc) National Youth Corps Service: A compulsory one year work experience program for graduates in Nigeria

Lord of the Flies: A Tale of a Fateful Trip Essay -- Lord of the Flies

Lord of the Flies: A Tale of a Fateful Trip      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Man has never quite found a truly perfect paragon in himself.   Through some fault of his own he can never achieve the high ideal of perfection that he seeks to attain.   The 'Divine' Michelangelo, named so by his contemporary biographer Giorgio Vasari, never called his masterwork of the Sistine Chapel ceiling finished. When it was unveiled Pope Julius II fell to his knees in prayer at the sight of this 'divine work of perfection.'   Michelangelo, who never claimed himself to be a painter, never accepted his work as a masterpiece, claiming that it was "full of flaws" produced by his own imperfections and sins.   William Golding attributes this universal flaw to the evil produced by man.   Never before had man's evil been shown as it had during WWI.   The viciousness of man was apparent to all the world in the creation of the atomic bomb and in a war that concerned the whole earth.   In response to this unveiling of evil, Golding created The Lord of the Flies.   In this work of fiction, Golding hinted that even the youngest of all individuals- adolescent boys-are capable of inescapable evil.   He also suggested that this evil pervades into even the most saintly and corrupts all that it comes into contact with.   In The Lord of the Flies Golding uses different characters in the novel to show the influence of this evil upon society and to represent the most the four basic aspects of human nature.    Ralph is an attractive boy and a natural leader; the well-adjusted, athletic boy who might easily become the idol of his peers.   First mentioned as "the boy with fair hair," Ralph emerges as a child of fortune endowed with common sense: the sort of child who naturally fosters grace, s... ...nds the pragmatic conflict of good and evil that exists in man, and unlike Simon and Piggy, he is resourceful enough to elude death and to carry this knowledge back to civilization.   On the mainland, Ralph will be a man of reason aware of the darkness that lurks in man-even in the most innocent person.      Works Cited. Baker, James R. "Why It's No Go." Critical Essays on William Golding. Ed. James R. Baker. Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1988. Golding, William. Lord of the Flies. London: Faber and Faber, 1958. Hynes, Samuel. "William Golding's Lord of the Flies." Critical Essays on William Golding. Ed. James R. Baker. Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1988. Kinkead-Weekes, Mark, and Ian Gregor. William Golding: a critical study. London: Faber and Faber, 1997. Moody, Philippa. Golding: Lord of the Flies, a critical commentary. London: Macmillan, 1964.

Application of CFD Simulation for Evaluating the Separation Efficiency of Deoiling Hydrocyclones :: Environment, Oil-water Separation

Introduction Having an efficient and reliable system for oil-water separation is of crucial importance especially for offshore oil and gas industry. Due to the platform movement, space, weight and operating limitations in offshore, the usage of common methods (gravity based vessels) for oil/water separation are ineffective. On the other hand producing oil is often accompanied by large amount of water that is discharged into the sea on offshore platforms. The amount of oil in water is confined from environmental standards. Therefore the need to have a high efficiency compact separator during variable operating conditions attracts the interests of researchers to hydrocyclones. Special trait of hydrocyclones such as simple design, easy to install and operate, no moving parts, and low manufacturing and maintenance costs make hydrocyclones as an economical and effective system for produced water treatment [1-2]. The separation process that is occurred in the deoiling hydrocyclones is quite different from that in the desander ones []. The density difference between liquid-liquid is smaller than solid-liquid mixtures. Therefore the separation of liquid from liquid is more difficult than solid from liquid and needs higher rotational speeds. The liquid droplet in comparison with solid particles could not experience shear rates. If the shear rates increase to the critical level the larger droplet break down to the smaller ones. The separation process for small liquid droplets is more difficult than large ones. On the other hand if two droplets close enough they might coalesce to each other. Because of difference in flow split of desander and deoiler hydrocyclones, the flow feature of continuous phase is different in these two types. The centrifugal forces cause the solid particles migrate to the wall region in desander hydrocyclones. So the near wall region is important in desander hydrocyclones but the oil droplet migrate to the center of hydrocyclones in deoiling hydrocyclones and the consideration tends to the center flow features. The first idea of using common hydrocyclones for oil-water separation was suggested by Simkin and Olney [6] and Sheng et al. [7] but fundamental studies on deoiling hydrocyclones started from 1980 by Colman [8] and Thew. Several experimental researches on deoiling hydrocyclones were conducted by Colman et al. [9] and Colman and Thew [10-12]. Their results showed that the separation efficiency of hydrocyclones is independent of flow split between 0.5 to 10 percent. So the overflow diameter should design based on working conditions. Moreover for constant droplet size distribution in inlet, the size distribution in outlet is independent of flow split. Application of CFD Simulation for Evaluating the Separation Efficiency of Deoiling Hydrocyclones :: Environment, Oil-water Separation Introduction Having an efficient and reliable system for oil-water separation is of crucial importance especially for offshore oil and gas industry. Due to the platform movement, space, weight and operating limitations in offshore, the usage of common methods (gravity based vessels) for oil/water separation are ineffective. On the other hand producing oil is often accompanied by large amount of water that is discharged into the sea on offshore platforms. The amount of oil in water is confined from environmental standards. Therefore the need to have a high efficiency compact separator during variable operating conditions attracts the interests of researchers to hydrocyclones. Special trait of hydrocyclones such as simple design, easy to install and operate, no moving parts, and low manufacturing and maintenance costs make hydrocyclones as an economical and effective system for produced water treatment [1-2]. The separation process that is occurred in the deoiling hydrocyclones is quite different from that in the desander ones []. The density difference between liquid-liquid is smaller than solid-liquid mixtures. Therefore the separation of liquid from liquid is more difficult than solid from liquid and needs higher rotational speeds. The liquid droplet in comparison with solid particles could not experience shear rates. If the shear rates increase to the critical level the larger droplet break down to the smaller ones. The separation process for small liquid droplets is more difficult than large ones. On the other hand if two droplets close enough they might coalesce to each other. Because of difference in flow split of desander and deoiler hydrocyclones, the flow feature of continuous phase is different in these two types. The centrifugal forces cause the solid particles migrate to the wall region in desander hydrocyclones. So the near wall region is important in desander hydrocyclones but the oil droplet migrate to the center of hydrocyclones in deoiling hydrocyclones and the consideration tends to the center flow features. The first idea of using common hydrocyclones for oil-water separation was suggested by Simkin and Olney [6] and Sheng et al. [7] but fundamental studies on deoiling hydrocyclones started from 1980 by Colman [8] and Thew. Several experimental researches on deoiling hydrocyclones were conducted by Colman et al. [9] and Colman and Thew [10-12]. Their results showed that the separation efficiency of hydrocyclones is independent of flow split between 0.5 to 10 percent. So the overflow diameter should design based on working conditions. Moreover for constant droplet size distribution in inlet, the size distribution in outlet is independent of flow split.

Marketing Peter Pan Peanut Butter to Canadian Markets Essay

Many U.S. consumers are not aware that there are many products that are sold in our country but are not available to countries like China or Japan. A lot of products are only for sale in the U.S. and consumers in other countries have to find other ways of obtaining those products. Some products that use to be sold in Canada have now vanished while others have never been available for purchase so many consumers have to order those products online, if possible, or possibly get some family member or friend from the U.S. to buy and ship the product to them. Some Canadians are now surprised to learn that Coca-Cola Vanilla, or Vanilla Coke, is no longer available to purchase in the supermarkets and convenience stores located in Canada. Consumers on both sides of the border and other countries responded well to these products that were launched in 2002 by the Coca Cola Company. Canadians that now want this product will have to stock up the next time they visit the U.S. Meanwhile they may be able to look forward to other products that may reach Canadian markets. As Marketing Manager of ConAgra Food’s, Peter Pan Peanut Butter, I would like to market this brand available to Canadian markets by using a marketing plan that is the core of the business. The main reason for the marketing plan is that it provides a structured approach that forces the marketing manager to consider all the relevant elements of the planning process which might be missed if a more rushed approach is adopted especially when trying to market a product to foreign markets. Peter Pan Peanut Butter is brand of ConAgra Foods and was named after the J.M. Barrie character debuted in 1928. The brand was originally produced by the Swift & Company that at the time first called the peanut butter, â€Å"E.K. Pond.† Peter Pan PB comes in 10 different varieties which include Creamy, Whipped, Crunchy, Extra Crunchy, Honey Roasted Creamy, Honey Roasted Crunchy, Smart Choice Creamy, Smart Choice Crunchy, Plus 8 (vitamin enriched). Peter Pan has been on the market for many decades and when first packaged, was marketed in a tin can. But because of metal shortages during the second World War, changed its packaging to glass and plastic jars. The product’s tagline of not sticking to the roof of your mouth is one of the reasons, other than it being just plain good, that the Canadians desire Peter Pan so much. The first step in marketing this product to one of the largest Canadian food markets such as The Superstore, Sobeys, Metro, and Safeway, is to analyze the customer value equation. â€Å"Traditionally we think that consumers choose based on the quality of the product, while really the driver of all choice is the non-cognitive relationship that the consumer has with the brand, which is entirely channeled through the brand identity.† (Wegrzyn, 2011). The matter of finding a role of the brand within a consumer’s life comes after the brand identity has accurately addressed how the brand wants to be perceived. The question for prospective buyers in most situations is not whether to make a purchase in the product category, but which product or service to buy. When a product’s price exceeds its value-in-use, the offering’s net contribution, and inducement to purchase, is negative. The customer is better off not buying the product. Whatever the customer would gain from the product itself is more than offset by what she would have to give up in paying its price. In most situations, however, a very different situation exists. In most situations, the prices charged for products and services fall far below the values-in-use that customers expect to obtain from them. In many cases, because of competition, products’ use values are in multiples of 5 to 10 times the prices at which they sell. Customers buy products to fill unmet needs and because they expect to derive some value or utility from them. Products provide customers with four types of utility or benefit. These utilities and benefits are time utility, place utility, ownership utility and form utility. What is the time utility or value to the consumer of having Peter Pan Peanut Butter available at any convenient time within supermarkets? The time utility may be of critical importance because many families may depend upon this product to satisfy the needs of small children which may take this product to school for lunch, possibly. So it may be detrimental that it is always available on the shelves by making sure that the production of the product is timely. Secondly, place utility is important. This is the value to a consumer of having the product available in convenient market locations. It may be important that the peanut butter is available at many different supermarkets especially those that are located near schools where there is a high population of children that the product would be in demand to. Ownership utility may not be an important factor for this product as is the value of transferring the product’s ownership. Last is the form utility of the product. Form utility is the value to consumers from changing the composition of the product. The form utility of the peanut butter is also fairly high. Peanut butter isn’t just for peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, but is also used in Peanut butter chili, peanut butter broccoli, peanut butter ice cream and peanut butter cocktails. It can be eaten with chocolate, it can be eaten with jam, it can be smeared on chicken, and it can even be used in drinks and it seems that the uses for peanut butter are endless. Peanut butter has been known to be used as an excellent lubricator on rusty old blades, for animal medicine, a butter replacement, mousetrap bait, and price tag removal. When entering foreign markets it is essential to have a clear understanding of the economic conditions of the country in order to properly promote the product in the marketing process so that the development, execution and measure of the campaign for the peanut butter run smoothly. It is important that I visit the target market because on-site, I can talk to potential buyers in order to learn everything that I need to know about competition, local rules and distribution channels. By attending trade shows and events that are specific to the industry within Canada I can learn a lot of helpful information by taking notes on products, competitors, packaging and labeling of similar products. The marketing process can be tedious and stressful in starting the export operations. I will have to make sure that I have an export plan that is similar to a business plan but instead focuses on strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that my company can face within foreign markets. My export plan will help me to define my objectives clearly in order to use the right tactics to reach my goals and gain more credibility. My plan states how I can make my product adaptable to Canadian markets and will aid in determining sales price and how much time will be required to mee t my objectives. The best way to enter the Canadian markets is through efficient entry strategies which involve selling directly to end users and foreign retail markets will buy directly from ConAgra Foods. In ConAgra’s consumer goods business, there is no one factor more important than brand awareness. We are aware that if a customer recognizes my brand, they are more likely to buy it which will increase the sales of the product. The product will be shelved on stores according to the popularity among customers or the most sales. The advertising campaign should increase brand awareness amongst some of our other products in order to get better placement in other Canadian markets as well. â€Å"An effective marketing mix also includes market segmentation, targeting and positioning the product for competitive advantage.† (Food Export Association of the Midwest USA and Food Export USA, 2011). â€Å"In international marketing, it may sometimes be useful to see countries as segments. Country level segmentation may be done on levels such as geography—based on the belief that neighboring countries and countries with a particular type of climate or terrain tend to share similarities, demographics or income.† (Pernerm, 2012). Income segmentation can be a bit tricky. This is because relative prices between the U.S. and Canada may differ significantly. This is based upon purchasing power parity that measures which greatly affects the relative cost of imported and domestically produced products. â€Å"Proper execution of these procedures requires quality research and consultation from export assistance providers, export service providers and customers in the foreign market.† (Food Export Association of the Midwest USA and Food Export USA, 2011). â€Å"The Marketing mix and the 4 P’s are the controllable elements of business.† (Food Export Association of the Midwest USA and Food Export USA, 2011). For instance a company has control over what product it makes, what price it sells the product for, how it wishes to place (distribute) the product and how it wishes to promote it. Introducing new products is a very good way of achieving differentiation and enhancing a retail identity in an over -subscribed retail market, but without corporate support new products may fail or go unnoticed. Because I want to expand Peter Pan, Peanut Butter to Canadian markets I need to perform an environmental analysis at the beginning of the marketing process as well as throughout it. Political and Legal forces, Economic forces, Socio-cultural forces and Technological forces are known as PEST factors of the micro-environment. â€Å"An examination of Canada’s political orientation and environment is part of the preliminary screening stage of market select.† (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). I have to carefully study Canada’s government structure of the Canadian markets and their political system. In addition, I must perform efficient risk assessments because of high levels of uncertainty in terms of continuity of government policies, changing political philosophies that are evident in Canadian markets. Political risk factors are divided into 4 levels, general instability, expropriation, operations, and finance. If any of the levels uncovers risk, which may be deemed unacceptable, the firm should immediately reconsider conducting business within Canada. Barriers of entry will also have to be assessed because it can also be a factor that could possibly make it difficult to break into Canadian markets. Tariff and non-tariff barriers make â€Å"companies already in the market more valuable as they reduce the risk of new competition.† (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). These â€Å"entry barriers are imposed by governments in order to protect domestic industry or to ensure that companies entering from foreign markets conform to trade relation’s arrangements with other countries.† (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). â€Å"Barriers to exit are obstacles to market players who realize that they will not turn a profit and would like to quit the market.† (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). â€Å"From an economic perspective, it makes sense to produce and sell an additional unit of product or service if the revenue generated covers at least for the variable costs.† (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). Another important variable to consider because of impacts that court of law decisions may have upon a company’s globalization attempts is its legal environment. ConAgra could face a vast amount of problems in my efforts to develop a successful strategy. â€Å"Understanding the legal environment of target countries is considered of great importance in terms of market selection, due to the detrimental impacts court of law decisions related to issues such as foreign exchange rates, expropriation and intellectual property rights, jurisdiction, patents, trademarks, licensing, antitrust and bribery, etc.† (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). I will also have to pay close attention to the economic development and performance of Canada. Canada’s stage of economic growth will have a great impact in my foreign strategies. â€Å"Economic growth affects a countries attitude towards foreign business activity, the demand for goods and the distribution system found within the country.† (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). â€Å"So, a study of the economic climate is important especially to gain understanding with regard to developing countries and secondly in respect to market potential and market growth.† (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). â€Å"The existing level of economic development allows the firm to estimate the degree of market potential as well as allowing them to prepare for economic shifts and emerging markets.† (Zekiri & Angelova, 2011). ConAgra’s direct competitors of packaged foods in the U.S.are the H.J. Heinz Company, Mondelez International, Nestl, Tyson Foods, and Smithfield foods. International competitors are Gordon signature, GFS, Markon, and Trade East. Many Canadian brands believe very strongly in marketing that it’s more than simply a service offering. They believe that it starts with a clear understanding of demographics and competitive landscape. Canadian brand managers are experienced, senior level professionals with combined sales and marketing backgrounds across an impressive range of tier-one companies within their industry. But as with most marketers ConAgra’s team has built collectively and individually, vast extended networks of highly specialized and talented marketers. As ComAgra’s landscape continues to change, they are committed to learning, understanding and working in new environments in order to ensure they reach the highest potential for all of their principals. Peanut butter is in 90 percent of households and most families with kids consider it a staple and kid-friendly food.† (Ashman & Beckley, 2006). If you were to ask many people to name their favorite brand of peanut butter you may get a few different answers such as Skippy, Jif and Peter Pan. The product largest consumer base comes from families with children, preschools and K-12 schools. â€Å"While today’s harried parents can choose from an array of prepackaged lunch options, the classic PB&J remains as convenient as it is healthy and tasty.† (Gidman, 2009). â€Å"This means that the three major peanut butter brands—plus several smaller ones—will have to employ successful branding to secure a place in the American lunch box.† (Gidmanm, 2009). â€Å"Manufactures are responding to consumers’ hectic lifestyles by creating packaging that assists convenience. Peanut butter comes in squeezable packages, with jelly and as a premade sandwich.† (Ashman & Beckley, 2006). In Peter Pan’s advertising campaigns from the 1950’s they showcased â€Å"Youngsters Prefer Peter Pan Peanut Butter† within their ad. The advertisement influenced mothers shopping for their children by using a charming little blonde haired boy enjoying a piece of bread covered with peanut butter because the advertising agency knew that showcasing a motherly figure or a mother, would get the mother to associate that child with a child of her own. They also printed the advertisement using calm colors that allowed the viewer of the ad to think relaxing thoughts. Good marketing ethics affect organizational success. Ethics are the principals a person or department uses when making a decision. The truth is, the advertising ad can be a little misleading because just because that little boy in the ad likes that peanut butter, this doesn’t mean that every little child will like it. â€Å"Misleading advertising is a common ethical dilemma. Although regulation provides formal boundaries of what an advertisement can and cannot say, marketers must consider the ethical boundaries.† (Okely, 2009). â€Å"Ethical behavior by the marketing department will make the department and even the company a more attractive place to work as the company’s good reputation will transfer to its employees. Motivated, proud employees will improve performance.† (Okely, 2009). â€Å"Bad marketing ethics will destroy a good reputations which is arguably much harder to build than sales numbers.† (Okely, 2009). Marketing plans are crucial to marketing managers in providing a more structured approach in marketing products to foreign markets. Market managers specialize in targeting different parts of a customer base to increase demand for a company’s product or matches customers and different market segments to the products the firm produces. Foreign marketing is a very broad subject is importance to a country and to individual companies. I have examined the broader aspects of international trade in terms of difficulties encountered when trading I foreign markets including how countries are structured in terms of their economic development and some of the world’s trading blocks. Many problems have also been considered from a company’s standpoint and in each of the elements of the marketing mix are considered in turn in the context of how it should be manipulated when dealing in foreign markets. References Angelova, J., & Zekiri, B. (2011). Factors that influence entry mode choice in foreign markets. European Journal of Social Sciences, 22(4), 572-584. Retrieved from http://www.eurojournals.com/EJSS_22_4_12.pdf Ashmanm, H., & Beckly, J. (2006, January 7). Educating consumers about peanut butter. Retrieved from: http://www.foodprocessing.com/articles/2006/258.html Food Export Association of the Midwest USA and Food Export USA, (2012). Compete and succeed in the international marketplace: The export marketing mix. Retrieved from: http://www.foodexport.org/GettingStarted/Content.cfm?ItemNumber=1288 Gidman, J. (2009, January 19). Peanut Butter brands go nuts. Retrieved from: http://www.brandchannel.com/features_effect.asp?pf_id=460 Okely, L. (2009, June 26). Common ethical dilemmas faced by marketing departments. http://www.helium.com/items/1496496-ethical-issues-faced-by-marketers Perner, L. Ph.D. (2012). USC Marshall: International marketing. Retrieved from: http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/international_marketing.html Wegrzyn, N. (2011, December 20). The consumer value equation. Retrieved from: http://popsop.com/52197

Freshman

This can cause stress and anxiety for some people. Stress often leads to eating more and eating foods that are not as healthy. Also, if students have a hard time adjusting to college life, they may find themselves being unhappy, which could lead to drinking more and eventually gaining weight. Sometimes adjusting is extremely sad and upsetting for college freshman, which often leads to emotional eating. Exercise habits can become worse In college because students are busy and do not always have the time to worry about staying in shape.They can find themselves at class all day, studying all night, and having time to eat, but not workout. Much fewer people are student athletes in college than in high school. In high school, the teams are easier to make because it is much less competitive and more about having fun. In college, sports are intense and only a small amount of people participate in them. Therefore, these high school athletes are not getting as much exercise In college because most of them are not participating In a sport anymore, which can result In weight gain.Another cause for the freshman fifteen is the food being available at all times. College students do not have a specific time for breakfast, lunch, and dinner. The dining halls are open and filled with food all day. Some students cannot handle this and end up eating much more than they should, just because it is there and it is available to them, which they are not used to. Although there are people who will still eat healthy and restrain from overeating, several people do not have that will power and will eat every time they pass by a addling hall.The causes of gaining the Irishman fifteen are common at all colleges and universities, and students need to start eating healthier, working out more, and being conscious of their health. It is clear that the freshman fifteen is a real thing. The problems that cause this weight gain can happen at any school and that is why it is so common. Although not everyone who puts on weight in college puts on exactly fifteen pounds, it is still concerning. College students, of all people, should try to stay healthy. They are developing bad habits that could last for the rest of their lives.

The Dilemma of IELTS Test Takers at Preparatory Programs in the UAE: A Call for Lexical-Structural Syllabus Design

————————————————- Doctorate of Education Theoretical Perspectives on Materials and Syllabus Design in TESOL  (DED609) Title: The Dilemma of IELTS Test Takers at Preparatory Programmes in the UAE: A Call for Lexical-Structural Syllabus Design. By: Mohammed A. Molhim Module tutor: Dr. Yasmin yildiz No. of words 000 words Essay Outline * Introduction * Conceptual Framework * IELTS Marking Rubrics: Lexical Resources & Grammatical Range * Lexical Syllabus * Structural Syllabus Selection of Lexical and Grammatical Items in Lexical-structural Syllabus: * Structural Syllabus: Drawbacks * The Structural Syllabus and Grammar Teaching * Suggested Steps to design a Lexical-Structural Syllabus * Conclusion Introduction Standardized test preparation courses such as the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) in preparatory programmes at government and private universities in the United Arab Emirates (The UAE) prepare students to meet their exit score requirement.Curriculum planning has been driven towards these tests. Some research studies (Read and Hayes, 2003) warned against that type of curriculum in that it is restricted to those areas that are to be tested with no balance or integrated skills course design. Curriculum designers therefore depend heavily on materials geared to practice for the required exam. Moreover, Alderson and Hamp-Lyons (1996) argue that these type of curriculum are characterised by ‘teaching to the test’ and even text-book slaves.On the other hand, this essay will argue that designing and implementing curriculum that is supported by materials that reflect and meet the test question types and objectives can be beneficial to students preparing for standardised tests in the UAE. This paper will be outlined as follows: After introducing the conceptual framework of the essay, it will highlight the IELTS’ mark ing criteria of ‘Lexical Resource’ and ‘Grammatical Range’ in the hope to establish the argument that half of the IELTs marking criteria is based on lexical and grammatical items.Then, the type of lexical and structural syllabus that can be proposed to meet students’ needs in enhancing the aspect of English Language accuracy will be described. Some practical guidelines will then be provided for designing a lexical-structural syllabus. Conceptual Framework This essay falls within the conceptual framework of critical theory and critical pedagogy.From a social reconstructionism perspective, critical theory and critical pedagogy call for critically re-addressing status quo issues in education. Paolo Freire (1972), a critical theorist, believes that in most education systems there exists a hidden curriculum that underlines the status quo supported by the dominant culture and thus repressing minority subcultures. Curriculum planning should undergo a consta nt progressive change due to the progressive nature of the country and educational systems in the UAE.Curriculum change at the level of preparatory programmes is an inseparable part of this change since it is observed that research has provided enough evidence see published annually (IELTS, 2011) that in the UAE and other Arab countries where the majority of students and IELTS test takers struggle to reach a level of proficiency matching score band 5. 0 that enables them to proceed to their major.This judgment is supported by professional and formal data provided in Table 1 below which is adapted from the IELTS Annual Review of 2011. These records include a comparison of IELTS results by mother tongue candidates and by country of origin for the many countries using the IELTS tests. Table 1. Mean band score for the most frequent countries or regions of origin Country: The UAE| Listening| Reading| Writing| Speaking| Overall | Academic Module| 4. 9| 4. 8| 4. 7| 5. 4| 5. 0| General Modu le| 4. 3| 3. 5| 4. 3| 4. 9| 4. 3|It is shocking to learn that the UAE with all of its progressive trends in economy and education, coupled with billions of dollars supporting the educational system where ministries of Higher education and Education receive about 22 % of the total budget in the UAE (Ministry of Finance, 2011), is ranked at the bottom of the ranking list in IELTS scores (See Appendix A). This inexplicable fact urgently calls for critical pedagogy in education and in curriculum design in order to problematise the issue and arrive at proper and sustainable solutions.This is why this essay adopts a critical pedagogical approach. Within critical pedagogy paradigm, â€Å"curriculum perspective emphasizes the roles schools and learners can and should play in addressing social injustices and inequality. Curriculum development is not seen as a neutral process. † (Richards, 2001: 118). Similarly, Freire (1972) and Apple (1986) contend that schools do not present equal o pportunities so learners and teachers must be engaged to address important social and personal problems and seek learners’ empowerment.Morris (1995:10), furthermore, argues â€Å"Social injustices and inequality would be central issues in the curriculum. † Accordingly, curriculum designers in the UAE should study at the context in which learners are taught and start to constantly problematise current issues in order to improve their designs. In Applied linguistics, Pennycook (2001: 5) asserts that applied linguistics from a critical pedagogy perspective â€Å"is always concerned how the classroom, text, or conversation is related to broader social cultural and political relations,†.This paper is intended to problematise the issue of curriculum design in the UAE contest in that it seeks to establish that solid elements of lexical-structural syllabus can lead to a better success rate in IELTS. IELTS Marking Rubrics: Lexical Resources & Grammatical Range While ampl e IELTS research studies in university environments is available (see research reports in IELTS. org), there appears to be less research on the impact of Speaking and Writing assessment criteria or IELTS band descriptors on syllabus design.IELTS measures both test candidates’ abilities to produce different sentence structures, and the range and appropriateness of vocabulary. Consequently, lexical resources and grammatical range are regarded as significant constituents of the speaking and writing assessment, since they determine the level of vocabulary and grammar in speaking and writing the test candidates use. Test candidates are rated using detailed descriptors in IELTS. In the Speaking test, these describe spoken performance according to four different criteria: Fluency and Coherence, Lexical resources, Grammatical Range and Accuracy, and Pronunciation.In the Writing test, the descriptors assess candidates in terms of: Task achievement or response, Coherence and cohesion, Lexical Resources, and Grammatical Range and Accuracy (IELTS handbook, 2004: 18-23). It is clear from the speaking and writing assessment criteria that lexical resources and grammatical range constitute half of the assessment. They describe test takers’ level in grammar and vocabulary in the speaking and writing modules in detail. They should therefore occupy a big part of any curriculum design for IELTs preparation syllabus.Accordingly, this essay argues that a balanced lexical-structural syllabus can help in meeting the course objectives and students’ needs of any IELTS preparation course. Lexical Syllabus: Empowering students’ Lexical Resources in IELTS Historically, syllabuses were not lexical but structural. With the advent of the Communicative Approach, new ideas in syllabus design have been introduced with a focus on functions. In 1990, when Willis wrote The Lexical Syllabus, a large amount of attention to the Lexical syllabus surfaced. Willis (1990, P. v i)) identified three major aspects for lexis in lexical syllabus.First, the language to be learned should be somehow graded to make it easier for the learners to understand. Second, the language should be selected carefully without random exposure. Thirdly, the language syllabus should be itemised Over the past thirty years the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), however, has not emphasized direct instruction of vocabulary or grammar (Laufer 2006). CLT should therefore be regarded as inappropriate for IELTS preparation exam courses and more explicit instruction of lexis and grammar could help students achieve their desired score in IELTS.In fact, according to Zahar, Cobb and Spada (2001), three periods of direct English instruction every week would lead to the incidental learning of only 70 new words a year. Therefore, acquisition of vocabulary through reading must be supplemented by direct instruction, which can be supported by incorporating a lexical syllabus. In addition, the lexical syllabus can make academic English vocabulary needed in IELTS more learnable to lower-level learners.There is also a well established connection between vocabulary knowledge and successful academic reading (Corson 1997; Nation 2001:144-149). Thus, the significance of incorporating lexical syllabus is significantly clear for large-scale high-stakes tests such as IELTS that assess the range of vocabulary exhibited in a student’s writing and speaking (See Appendix A). It should be admitted that producing satisfactory IELTS writing and speaking responses is not achieved by just learning individual vocabulary and grammatical structures.However, lexical items can lead to further enhancing students overall proficiency in IELTS. Some research ((Laufer, 2005; Nation 2001) has proven that lexical resources are the basis for comprehending grammar and lexical meanings. It is also the most important predictor of writing production (Read, 2002) and reading comprehension (Beck et. a l. 1987:147). In the IELTS speaking test, a similar lexical diversity would also be needed as suggested by Read (2005) who found that diverse lexical resources with some sophistication are rated higher.Regarding the adequate vocabulary range for academic success in international standardised tests, researchers (Laufer, 1992; Nation, 2001) argued that students, depending on the genre, need about 3,000 words in order for them to be able to read ungraded academic text and that the minimum word family level is the 3,000 word level needed for reading an unsimplified text. For IELTS reading texts, about 4,000 word families might be needed, 2,000 of General Service List (GSL) and about 570 words from the Academic Word List (AWL) (Coxhead, 1998) and about 1,000 technical words, proper nouns and low frequency vocabulary (Nation, 2001:147).Accordingly, commercially-produced syllabi such as Headway do not provide the wide range of lexical resources needed by the students (Horst, 2005; Lee, 200 7) in order for them to develop their lexis repertoire and to hence get the score required to pass IELTS. Moreover, there is enough suggestive research evidence (See Beaton, Grunederg and Ellis, 1995 – in Nation, 2001) that would indicate that the more vocabulary range manifested in speaking, the higher the score a student would get in writing.This shows that direct learning is in fact both effective and efficient and that the AWL can provide a reasonable target vocabulary for IELTS preparation courses and syllabi. In terms of the relation of grammar and vocabulary, David Wilkins (cited in Lewis, 2000: 8) noted that â€Å"Without grammar little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed†. This statement brings to focus the significance of incorporating lexical with a grammatical element when designing a syllabus aiming at enhancing students’ structural language system and accuracy and hence achieving a higher score in IELTS.The following section will shed some light on the significance of developing students’ accuracy through grammatical structures in structural syllabi. Structural Syllabus: Revisiting grammatical syllabus The structural syllabus comprises of a group of grammatical items that are selected and graded according to simplicity and complexity (Nunan, 1988). A structural-lexical syllabus’ principle objective is to help the learners acquire the grammatical structures and vocabulary of the language they are learning.The grammatical structures are usually presented in a certain sequence, for example, present followed by past, or in contrasting pairs, for example, simple present versus simple past (Long and Crookes, 1993). Wilkins (1976) describes this type of syllabus design approach as synthetic in which the various parts of language are separately taught and there is a â€Å"gradual accumulation of the parts until the whole structure of the language has been built up†. (p. 2) Wilkins suggests language is structured into smaller items and units in a structural syllabus and then it is presented discretely.Wilkins argues that this exposes learners to particular samples of language in which one grammatical feature dominates each lesson in the syllabus. This is mainly based on the hypothesis that grammatical and lexical rules are learned in an additive process, by which learners gain complete mastery of each item before a new one is taught (Nunan, 1988). It is hence the learner's task to re-synthesize the grammatical and lexical items that have been presented in a separate way (Wilkins, 1976). An important question raised here is the set of criteria teachers used to select which lexical and grammatical were to be used in the structural syllabus.This will be reviewed in the following sections. Selection of Lexical and Grammatical Items in Lexical-structural Syllabus: Mackey (1965) takes the stance that the lexical items in a structural syllabus are to be selected on the basis of criteria of frequency, coverage, availability, and learnability (White 1988:49-50). In the 1990s, the lexical approach in teaching and learning started to gain formal prominence among many researchers (Willis, 1990; Willis, 1996). As proposed by the lexical approach, a target reservoir of vocabulary is suggested to be learned at a specific level (Willis, 1990; Willis, 1996).These target vocabulary are derived from old corpus analysis of written and spoken English, but this could be regarded now as old-fashioned with the advancement of computerized corpus. However, one view, suggested by Richards (2001:154) is that lexical syllabuses were among the early types of syllabuses to be designed in language teaching. Regarding grammar structure, Mackey also (1965) proposes four criteria for the selection grammatical structures: simplicity, regularity, frequency, and contrastive difficulty.The last item, contrastive difficulty, means that learning some items at an early stage should rese mble the same item acquired in L1 (cited in Wilkins 1976: 6). These views of language selection have been challenged (e. g. , Ellis 2001). due to its lack of empirical experiments. Thus to determining the level of complexity, simplicity, regularity, etc. is almost entirely based on language teachers and syllabus designers’ common sense judgments. This dilemma, addressed in the following section, is one of the major shortcomings of the structural syllabus.Structural Syllabus: Drawbacks A number of limitations have been identified with the structural syllabus. The first shortcoming is drawn from Corder's (1967) â€Å"built-in syllabus† concept in which learners’ acquisition of different grammatical items is based on a natural order. This notion is supported by many researchers (for example, Hyltenstam and Pienemann, 1985). Within the framework of a built-in syllabus, grammatical complexity of a structure is not the reason for the difficulty of learning a structure of a language item.For instance, a common example of Arab Learners’ frequent mistakes is the acquisition of third person â€Å"s† morpheme (Hajjaj, 1999). Even though an average teacher can explain this item very well to Arabic learners, it always poses a challenge to them, which means difficulty or simplicity of language structure doesn’t always guarantee proper learning. This should be taken into serious consideration when designing a lexical-grammatical syllabus for IELTS preparation courses and thus adding meaningful activities that make the structures more memorable and relevant to learners’ needs and levels.The second main negative aspect of the structural syllabus is its lack of language functions. The structural syllabus is a reliable tool for assisting language learners to perfect common grammar rules. However, in terms of sociolinguistics, structural syllabus can prepare learners to be grammatically competent but communicatively incompetent (Jo hnson, 1982). A learner who replies ‘Yes, I do. ’ to ‘Do you mind if I open the window? ’ is a typical example of a learner whose command of English grammar might be ideal yet they are not capable of producing socially appropriate utterances.In other words, the structural syllabus helps learners produce instances of language usage rather than language use (Widdowson, 1978). Accordingly, syllabus designers who consider implementing lexical-structural syllabus need to promote both usage and use in order to avoid turning the language introduced into something meaningless. Socially contextualised and relevant language items introduced appropriately within interactive technique can bridge the gap between use and usage and make grammar teachable and learnable. This will be discussed in the following section. The Structural Syllabus and Grammar TeachingBefore advocating a lexical-grammatical syllabus, it is necessary to first establish the significance of explicit grammar teaching and learning. One debate in second language pedagogy has been about the teachability of grammar. Some scholars have argued against teaching grammar since it leads to only minimal achievement in the acquisition of linguistic competence in English (Krashen, 1982; Krashen and Terrel, 1983; Prabhu, 1987). Others have contended that explicitly teaching formal grammar plays a significant role in the development of the L2 learners' interlanguage system (Rutherford, 1987; Ellis, 1990, 1993).This paper supports the grammarians’ arguments in favor of formal grammar instruction that enhances IELTS’ UAE students and test takers’ accuracy. The first argument is based on studies on the emergence of immersion programs in Canada where many English L1 students study French and thus have been immersed in meaning- focused input in French (Swain, 1985; Swain and Lapkin, 1995). The results of research studies revealed that the majority of students have developed na tive-like receptive skills, but their productive ones are still far from native-like norms.This has therefore suggested that meaning-focused input instruction, which is devoid of any formal grammar teaching, is more likely to result in fossilization. The second argument defending formal grammar instruction derives from research (e. g. , Felix, 1985; White, 1987; Schachter, 1989) that suggests that adult L2 learners cannot have full access to the same acquisition resources as children with L1 do. This makes positive evidence such as formal instruction and corrective feedback.White (1987:105) finds that French learners of English as a second language tend to make sentences like ‘John drank slowly his coffee’ (John buvait lentement son cafe). These types of sentences are grammatically incorrect in English, but acceptable in their language. Those learners receiving positive evidence cannot notice that there are certain rules for adverb position within a sentence in English unless they are taught so by formal grammar instruction, which implies that lexical-structural syllabus can play a decisive role in some formal aspects of L2 learning and thus in IELTs preparation courses.The third argument has been proposed by Ellis (1990, 1993) who argues that formal grammar instruction develops explicit awareness of grammatical elements which hence helps learners acquire implicit knowledge. Ellis believes that the explicit knowledge of grammar instruction facilitates learning in three methods (1993:98). First, it encourages them to monitor their language before and after production. Terrell (1991:61) observes that â€Å"monitoring can apparently interact with acquisition, resulting in learners acquiring their own output† which shows the importance of monitoring in formal language instruction.Second, explicit teaching and learning support the factor of noticing certain elements in the input. Therefore, † if learners know that plural nouns have an â₠¬â€s, they are more likely to notice the —s on the ends of nouns they hear or read in input and also more likely to associate the —s morpheme with the meaning more than one†. (Ellis,1993:98). This example illustrates how specific features of grammar are best learned explicitly.Third, formal and explicit grammar knowledge assists learners in noticing some gaps in their language production. Thus if, for instance, Arab learners learn that verbs take an –s in the third person singular form, they are more likely to notice the gap when adding the third person singular –s or not, which leads to more accurate production later as they produce similar structures. Furthermore, Celce-Murica (1991: 467-468) suggests that formal lexical and grammar teaching can enhance meaning and social function.For instance, drawing attention to the different spatial denotation of the prepositions in and on the learner will â€Å"find it useful to know quite explicitly that à ¢â‚¬Ëœin’ favors the placement of objects in three-dimensional containers and ‘on’ favors the placement of objects on two-dimensional flat surfaces† if provided with formal instruction. Second, in an example of grammar enhancing social functions, Celee-Murcia discusses that learners need to be aware of the different modal auxiliaries uses in polite requests such as the difference between â€Å"Can you open the door? and â€Å"Could you open the door? â€Å". Celce-Murcia and Hilles (1988:4) believe that learners need to study grammar because many of them are to take part in international tests such as IELTS and that â€Å"Typically, a major component of such exams is grammar. Therefore, to give these students an incomplete grounding in grammar, regardless of one's conviction about teaching it, is to do them a great disservice. Students have to know and apply the rules of English grammar in order to do well on such tests. A relatively recent argument pro posed by Ellis (2001) argues that it is a mistake to suppose that learning foreign languages in schools is entirely to promote communication among speakers of different languages. Learning foreign languages has a more valuable end, i. e. promoting intellectual growth. (Ellis 2001:172) thus views learning a foreign language as a means to develop cognitive abilities and that grammar contains knowledge that contributes to learners’ cognitive skills.If one considers all the arguments discussed earlier in this essay claiming that formal teaching of lexical and grammatical items should be an indivisible part of any English classes, structural-lexical syllabus seems indispensible for students preparing for international examination such as IELTS and TOEFL. This is, however, only my conviction within my teaching context and does not entail that curriculum designers and teachers are to revert to old traditional language teaching methodologies such as grammar-translation method. I elie ve that adopting a merely lexical and/or structural syllabus has not survived in language education because they overemphasized the aspect of grammar teaching through many tedious structural drills. I believe that it is unfair to judge that grammar and lexical instruction should be eliminated simply because of insufficiencies of audio-lingual or grammar-translation methods. A well-balanced lexical-structural syllabus can be safely employed, especially in IELTS preparation courses, provided that it is supplemented by motivating and communicative tasksSuggested steps to design a Lexical-Structural Syllabus According to Stern (1983:339-340), there are major differences between English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL). Accordingly, EFL and ESL students are positioned in different learning conditions. ESL students learn Target Language (TL) in a more supportive setting in that they are more exposed to TL in its natural environment EFL. Considering needs and motivation, ESL students are more required and motivated to communicate with foreigners than EFL students.Thus, ESL students learning needs are definitely not centered on one factor or need. As previously discussed, the majority of Arab students in the UAE are EFL learners who study English in order to pass national exams, such as IELTS. This educational structure of teaching applies in the EFL environment in the UAE. Based on my observations and experience, I found that students in Emirati high schools are also required to learn specific discrete items such as vocabulary and grammatical items without any exposure to communicative tasks that enable them to use these items meaningfully.Unfortunately, only those who wish to pursue their higher education strive to master the grammatical and vocabulary items of their course books in order for them to achieve the required score of the university entrance exams. When taking these conditions into serious consideration, I have come to r ealize the reason why lexical and grammar instruction can, and perhaps should, be an essential component of any curriculum in the Emirati EFL educational system in schools, and this can be possible through the lexical-structural syllabus proposed in this essay.It is argued that (Richards, 2001) old and traditional language teaching methods did not succeed not because they adhered to a structural or lexical syllabus but because the implementation process was too mechanical through dull drills of discrete language items. I believe that a well-designed lexical-structural syllabus proposed in this essay can survive through two types of tasks: consciousness-raising and communicative tasks. Consciousness-raising activities can develop explicit knowledge and communicative tasks improve the implicit knowledge of lexical and grammatical structures (Ellis, 2001).As defined by Ellis (1993:109), consciousness-raising is â€Å"a deliberate attempt on the part of the teacher to make the learners aware of specific features of the L2†. The following task in Table 2 (Ellis, 2001:173) is a straightforward sample of a consciousness-raising (CR) activity that is designed to help learners be conscious of the difference between the prepositions ‘for’ and ‘since’. Table 2. An Example of a CR Problem-solving Task: 1. Here is some information about when three people joined the company they now work for and how long they have been working there.Name Date Joined Length of Time Ms Regan 1945 45 yrs Mr Bush 1970 20 yrs Ms Thatcher 1989 9 mths Mr Baker 1990 (Feb) 10 days 2. Study these sentences about these people. When is â€Å"for† used and when is â€Å"since† used? a. Ms Regan has been working for her company for most of her life. b. Mr Bush has been working for his company since 1970. c. Ms Thatcher has been working for her company for 9 months. . Mr Baker has been working for his company since February. 3. Which of the following sentence s are ungrammatical? Why? a. Ms Regan has been working for her company for 1945. b. Mr Bush has been working for his company for 20 years. c. Ms Thatcher has been working for her company since 1989. d. Mr Baker has been working for his company since 10 days. 4. Try and make up a rule to explain when â€Å"for† and â€Å"since† are used. 5. Make up one sentence about when you started to learn English and one sentence about how long you have been studying English.Use â€Å"for† and â€Å"since†. | It is my argument that if this exercise is supported by a communicative task where learners interact in pairs or with the classroom teacher it would enable them to internalise the target structure and use it in real-life communication. Designing a lexical-structural based syllabus is not a very hard task. There are many resources based on well-established research that can help syllabus designers build up their course (Lewis, 1997a,1997b). This essay offers some s uggestions on how to build a lexical-structural activities and syllabus.First, syllabus designers need to settle a relevant set of structures, vocabulary and different types of collocations (Lewis,1997a) and organise them according to their increasing complexity, starting from simple structures to complex ones. Second, syllabus designers should choose categories of vocabulary items to be learned and sequence the categories according to situational and functional characteristics such as vocabulary related topics such as environment, health, internet, education and so on since IELTS module is commonly based on globally social topics.Third, syllabus designers should integrate the group of vocabulary and structures together into learning objectives to base the units of lexical-structural syllabus. Although this essay advocates the implementation of a lexical-structural syllabus in IELTS preparation course at preparatory programmes in the UAE, it is necessary to admit that an eclectic an d multi-focus syllabus which includes a wide range of components, specifically vocabulary, structures introduced through functions and, situations can allow for a two-sided approach.This can emphasise the importance of systematically learning specific vocabulary and structures and building up linguistic knowledge, and at the same time it can focus on meeting immediate language communicative needs and sociolinguistic and pragmatic competence. Conclusion In my essay, I only propose that lexical-structural syllabus can safely be employed in EFL settings, particularly in the UAE. Previously, it was argued that the majority of EFL students in the UAE must score reasonably high in their university entrance English exams. 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(1976). Notional syllabuses. Oxford:Oxford University Press. Willis, D. (1990). The lexical syllabus: A new approach to language teaching. London: Collins. Willis. J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. Oxford: Longman. Yalden, J. (1983). The communicative syllabus: Evolution, de sign and implementation. Oxford: Pergamon. Zahar, R. , Cobb, T. and Spada, N. 2001. Acquiring vocabulary through reading: Effects of frequency and contextual richness. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57 (4), 541-572.Appendix A (Adapted from www. ielts. org) IELTS | Researchers – Test taker performance 2011 Band score information Place of Origin These figures show the mean overall and individual band scores achieved by 2011 Academic and General Training candidates from the top 40 places of origin. Mean band score for the most frequent countries or regions of origin (Academic) Academic| Listening| Reading| Writing| Speaking| OVERALL| Bangladesh| 5. 9| 5. 6| 5. 6| 5. 9| 5. 8| Brazil| 6. 8| 6. 9| 6. 2| 6. 9| 6. 7| China (People's Republic)| 5. 8| 5. 9| 5. 2| 5. 3| 5. 6| Colombia| 6. 2| 6. 4| 5. 7| 6. 4| 6. 2| Cyprus| 6. 4| 5. 9| 5. 7| 6. | 6. 1| Egypt| 6. 3| 6. 1| 5. 8| 6. 3| 6. 2| France| 6. 9| 6. 9| 6. 3| 6. 8| 6. 8| Germany| 7. 0| 6. 6| 6. 4| 7. 2| 6. 8| Ghana| 4. 8| 4. 3 | 5. 7| 6. 5| 5. 4| Hong Kong| 6. 7| 6. 4| 5. 9| 6. 2| 6. 4| India| 6. 4| 5. 6| 5. 8| 6. 2| 6. 1| Indonesia| 6. 6| 6. 3| 5. 9| 6. 3| 6. 4| Iran| 5. 8| 5. 4| 5. 8| 6. 3| 5. 9| Iraq| 5. 7| 5. 2| 5. 4| 6. 2| 5. 7| Italy| 6. 2| 6. 1| 5. 8| 6. 4| 6. 2| Japan| 6. 0| 5. 6| 5. 5| 5. 8| 5. 8| Jordan| 5. 9| 5. 5| 5. 5| 6. 3| 5. 9| Kenya| 6. 7| 6. 1| 6. 6| 7. 2| 6. 7| Korea, South| 6. 2| 6. 1| 5. 4| 5. 7| 5. 9| Kuwait| 5. 3| 4. 9| 4. 8| 5. 6| 5. 2| Libya| 5. 2| 5. 1| 5. 1| 5. 8| 5. 4| Malaysia| 7. | 7. 0| 6. 2| 6. 6| 6. 9| Mexico| 6. 7| 6. 8| 5. 9| 6. 5| 6. 6| Nepal| 6. 3| 5. 8| 5. 7| 6. 0| 6. 0| Nigeria| 6. 1| 6. 0| 6. 2| 7. 0| 6. 4| Oman| 5. 3| 5. 1| 5. 0| 5. 7| 5. 4| Pakistan| 5. 8| 5. 5| 5. 6| 6. 0| 5. 8| Philippines| 7. 0| 6. 6| 6. 2| 6. 8| 6. 7| Qatar| 4. 8| 4. 6| 4. 5| 5. 3| 4. 9| Romania| 7. 2| 7. 0| 6. 2| 6. 8| 6. 9| Russia| 6. 6| 6. 6| 5. 9| 6. 6| 6. 5| Saudi Arabia| 4. 9| 4. 8| 4. 7| 5. 6| 5. 1| Spain| 6. 7| 6. 9| 6. 0| 6. 5| 6. 6| Sri Lanka| 6. 6| 6. 0| 5. 9| 6. 5| 6. 3| Sudan| 5. 9| 5. 7| 5. 5| 6. 2| 5. 9| Taiwan| 5. 9| 6. 0| 5. 5| 5. 9| 5. 9| Thailand| 5. 9| 5. 9| 5. 3| 5. 7| 5. 8| Turkey| 6. 0| 5. | 5. 3| 5. 8| 5. 8| United Arab Emirates| 4. 9| 4. 8| 4. 7| 5. 4| 5. 0| Uzbekistan| 5. 7| 5. 6| 5. 0| 5. 5| 5. 5| Vietnam| 5. 9| 6. 1| 5. 6| 5. 7| 5. 9| Mean band score for the most frequent countries or regions of origin (General Training) General Training| Listening| Reading| Writing| Speaking| OVERALL| Bangladesh| 6. 1| 5. 4| 5. 8| 6. 2| 5. 9| Brazil| 6. 4| 6. 3| 6. 1| 6. 7| 6. 4| China (People's Republic)| 6. 3| 6. 0| 5. 7| 5. 8| 6. 0| Colombia| 5. 7| 5. 7| 5. 6| 6. 0| 5. 8| Egypt| 6. 3| 5. 9| 5. 9| 6. 4| 6. 2| France| 6. 9| 6. 8| 6. 3| 6. 8| 6. 8| Germany| 6. 9| 6. 6| 6. 4| 7. 1| 6. 8| Hong Kong SAR| 6. 7| 6. 4| 5. | 6. 2| 6. 4| India| 6. 3| 5. 7| 5. 8| 6. 2| 6. 1| Indonesia| 6. 7| 6. 2| 5. 9| 6. 3| 6. 3| Iran| 5. 7| 5. 4| 5. 8| 6. 3| 5. 9| Iraq| 5. 7| 5. 3| 5. 5| 6. 3| 5. 8| Italy| 6. 2| 6. 3| 5. 8| 6. 4| 6. 2| Japan| 6| 5. 6| 5. 5| 5. 9| 5. 8| Jordan| 6| 5 . 6| 5. 5| 6. 3| 5. 9| Kenya| 6. 8| 6. 4| 6. 7| 7. 3| 6. 9| Korea, South| 5. 8| 5. 4| 5. 3| 5. 4| 5. 5| Lebanon| 6. 3| 5. 7| 5. 9| 6. 6| 6. 2| Malaysia| 7. 3| 6. 9| 6. 5| 7. 0| 7. 0| Mauritius| 6. 5| 5. 9| 6. 2| 6. 7| 6. 4| Mexico| 6. 3| 6. 3| 6. 0| 6. 6| 6. 3| Nepal| 6. 3| 5. 6| 5. 9| 6. 2| 6. 1| Nigeria| 5. 9| 5. 9| 6. 6| 7. 1| 6. 4| Pakistan| 6. 2| 5. 5| 6. 0| 6. 4| 6. 1|Philippines| 6. 2| 5. 7| 5. 9| 6. 3| 6. 1| Romania| 6. 5| 6. 3| 5. 9| 6. 2| 6. 3| Russia| 6. 4| 6. 3| 6. 0| 6. 4| 6. 3| Saudi Arabia| 4. 6| 3. 8| 4. 4| 5. 0| 4. 5| Singapore| 7. 7| 7. 3| 6. 9| 7. 5| 7. 4| South Africa| 7. 4| 7. 0| 7. 3| 8. 4| 7. 6| Sri Lanka| 6. 3| 5. 7| 5. 8| 6. 3| 6. 1| Taiwan| 6. 3| 5. 8| 5. 8| 6. 2| 6. 1| Thailand| 5. 6| 5. 2| 5. 3| 5. 6| 5. 5| Turkey| 5. 8| 5. 5| 5. 5| 5. 8| 5. 7| Ukraine| 5. 8| 5. 6| 5. 5| 6. 0| 5. 8| United Arab Emirates| 4. 3| 3. 5| 4. 3| 4. 9| 4. 3| United States of America| 8. 0| 7. 6| 7. 7| 8. 6| 8. 0| Venezuela| 6. 3| 6. 3| 6. 1| 6. 4| 6. 3| Vietnam| 5. 8| 5. 6| 5. 7| 5. 7| 5. 8|